Abraham in Paul’s Theology: A Comparative Interfaith Reflection

Introduction

Abraham (Ibrāhīm in Islam, Avraham in Judaism) stands as one of the most influential figures in the Abrahamic traditions. For Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, he is the patriarch of faith, the bearer of God’s covenant, and the archetype of submission to the divine will. Yet, each tradition interprets Abraham’s role in light of its own covenantal understanding.

This article explores how the Apostle Paul framed Abraham in his theology, and then compares this with Jewish and Islamic perspectives.

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Paul’s Theological Framework: Abraham as the Father of Faith ✝️

1. Justification by Faith

Paul anchors his doctrine of justification by faith in Abraham’s example:

“Abraham believed God, and it was counted to him as righteousness” (Genesis 15:6; Romans 4:3; Galatians 3:6).

For Paul, Abraham was declared righteous before the Law of Moses, proving that faith—not works of the Law—was the basis of God’s acceptance.

2. Father of All Believers

Paul universalizes Abraham’s role. Abraham is father not only of Jews (by blood) but of Gentiles who believe (Romans 4:11–12). Thus, the church becomes the true “seed of Abraham” (Galatians 3:7).

3. Christ as Fulfillment of the Promise

Paul interprets the Abrahamic promise in Christ. The promise was made to Abraham and his “seed,” whom Paul identifies as Christ (Galatians 3:16). Through Christ, both Jews and Gentiles inherit Abraham’s blessing (Galatians 3:14).

4. Abraham and the Law

By pointing out that the promise to Abraham preceded the Law by 430 years (Galatians 3:17), Paul argues that faith is prior and superior to Torah observance. Abraham’s story thus provides Paul with a theological basis to invite Gentiles into covenantal blessing without requiring circumcision or full adherence to Mosaic law.

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The Jewish Perspective: Abraham as Covenant Patriarch ✡️

In Judaism, Abraham is chiefly remembered as:

1. Father of the Covenant: God promised Abraham land, descendants, and blessing (Genesis 12, 15, 17). This covenant was sealed through circumcision, which remains the sign of Jewish identity (Genesis 17:9–14).

2. Model of Obedience: Abraham’s supreme test was the ʿAqedah (Binding of Isaac, Genesis 22). His willingness to sacrifice his son shows ultimate obedience to God’s will.

3. Lineage and Peoplehood: Abraham is seen as the founding ancestor of Israel, linking Jewish peoplehood to divine promise. Unlike Paul, Jewish tradition does not universalize Abraham’s fatherhood; it emphasizes continuity through Israel.

In rabbinic literature, Abraham is even praised for keeping the Torah before it was given (Mishnah, Kiddushin 4:14), highlighting obedience as central—not faith alone.

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The Islamic Perspective: Abraham as Prophet and Hanīf ☪️

In Islam, Abraham (Ibrāhīm) is revered as:

1. The First Muslim (Hanīf): The Qur’an depicts Abraham as neither Jew nor Christian but a “hanīf” (pure monotheist) who submitted to God (Qur’an 3:67).

2. Builder of the Kaaba (House of God): Along with his son Ishmael, Abraham raised the foundations of the Kaaba in Mecca (Qur’an 2:125–127). This ties him directly to Islamic sacred geography and universal worship.

3. Father of Prophets: Through both Ishmael and Isaac, Abraham becomes the patriarch of prophetic succession leading to Muhammad ﷺ (Qur’an 6:84–86).

4. Model of Submission: Like Judaism, Islam emphasizes Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son (understood by many Muslims as Ishmael). His act epitomizes islām (submission).

For Muslims, the covenant with Abraham is universalized in Islam: the prayer of Abraham for a prophet among his descendants (Qur’an 2:129) is fulfilled in Muhammad ﷺ, making the Muslim community heirs to Abraham’s faith.

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Comparative Analysis 🔍

In Paul’s theology ✝️, righteousness is based solely on faith. Abraham’s belief in God, rather than any adherence to the Law, is what counted as righteousness, and this principle extends to all who believe in Christ, whether Jew or Gentile. By contrast, Judaism ✡️ emphasizes Abraham’s obedience and covenant fidelity as the foundation of righteousness. Abraham’s willingness to submit to God’s commands, especially in the binding of Isaac, highlights obedience as the core of covenantal life. Islam ☪️, meanwhile, frames Abraham as the model of islām (submission). His total surrender to God, exemplified in his readiness to sacrifice his firstborn son, Ishmael, defines him as the archetypal Muslim.

For Paul ✝️, circumcision is no longer the covenant’s defining sign; instead, faith in Christ has replaced it as the marker of belonging to God’s people. Judaism ✡️, however, continues to uphold circumcision (Brit Milah) as the physical and perpetual sign of Abraham’s covenant with God. In Islam ☪️, the covenantal sign is not confined to one ritual, but expressed through the wider practices of monotheism, prayer, Hajj, and submission that connect believers to Abraham’s legacy.

Paul ✝️ identifies the true “seed of Abraham” as Christ and all who belong to him by faith. Jewish tradition ✡️, by contrast, views the seed of Abraham primarily in terms of biological descent through Israel. Islam ☪️ expands the lineage to include descendants of both Ishmael and Isaac, with the covenant fulfilled in Muhammad ﷺ and the community of Islam.

Finally, each tradition interprets the story of Abraham’s sacrifice differently. For Paul ✝️, the binding of Isaac foreshadows the ultimate sacrifice of Christ, pointing to salvation through faith. In Judaism ✡️, the binding of Isaac is a supreme test of obedience and covenant loyalty. In Islam ☪️, the sacrifice is understood by many to involve Ishmael, and it symbolizes total submission to God’s will.

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Conclusion

Abraham emerges as a shared yet contested figure across the Abrahamic faiths. For Paul, he is the prototype of faith, proving that justification is by trust apart from the Law, and serving as the spiritual ancestor of Jews and Gentiles in Christ. For Judaism, he is the covenant patriarch whose obedience and lineage define Israel’s unique identity. For Islam, he is the pure monotheist, prophet, and builder of the Kaaba (House of God), whose legacy culminates in Islam as the universal faith.

Thus, Abraham becomes a theological bridge across traditions—yet also a point of divergence where each faith community defines its covenantal identity.

Analyze Jesus and Muhammad in Abrahamic faiths through the concept of “Seed” in Genesis 22:18

Certain individuals argue that the reference to the “seed” in Genesis 22, verse 18, does not pertain to Jesus due to his words in Matthew 15, verse 24. Instead, they point to Muhammad based on Surah 21, verse 107. How is their argument articulated?

The argument that the “seed” mentioned in Genesis 22, verse 18, refers to Muhammad rather than Jesus is articulated by contrasting biblical and Quranic texts. Here’s how the argument is structured:

Genesis 22, verse 18, states:

“And through your offspring all nations of the earth will be blessed, because you have obeyed My voice”.

The Hebrew word used for “offspring” or “seed” is “zera”, which can be a collective singular noun, implying it could refer to a single individual or a group.

In Matthew 15, verse 24, Jesus says:

“I was sent only to the lost sheep of the house of Israel”.

This statement is interpreted by some to mean that Jesus’ mission was primarily focused on the Israelites and not on all nations directly. This interpretation is used to argue that Jesus was not the fulfillment of the promise in Genesis 22, verse 18, which speaks of a blessing to “all nations”.

Surah 21, verse 107 of the Quran states:

“And We have not sent you, [O Muhammad], except as a mercy to the worlds”.

This verse is interpreted to mean that Muhammad’s mission was universal, extending to all of humanity, which aligns with the promise in Genesis 22, verse 18, about blessing all nations.

The proponents of this view argue that since Jesus explicitly stated his mission was to the Israelites, he does not fulfill the universal aspect of the blessing promised in Genesis 22, verse 18.

In contrast, Muhammad is described in the Quran as a mercy to all worlds, which they believe aligns more closely with the promise of a blessing to all nations. Therefore, they conclude that the “seed” in Genesis 22, verse 18, refers to Muhammad rather than Jesus.

This argument hinges on the interpretation of Jesus’ mission scope in the New Testament and the universal mission attributed to Muhammad in the Quran.

There are some scholars who believe the prophethood of Muhammad is related to Abraham’s near sacrifice of Ishmael. Therefore, Muslims commemorate Eid ul-Adha or the Feast of Sacrifice. How is this argument articulated?

The argument that the prophethood of Muhammad is related to Abraham’s near sacrifice of Ishmael is based on the Islamic tradition that Abraham was commanded by God to sacrifice his son Ishmael, not Isaac as mentioned in the Bible.

This event is seen as a test of Abraham’s faith and obedience to God, and Ishmael’s willingness to be sacrificed is seen as a demonstration of his own faith and submission to God’s will.

In Islamic theology, this event is considered a precursor to the prophethood of Muhammad, who is seen as a descendant of Ishmael. The story of Abraham’s sacrifice is commemorated by Muslims during the Eid al-Adha, or the Feast of Sacrifice, which is one of the most important Islamic holidays.

The argument is articulated as follows:

1. Abraham was commanded by God to sacrifice his son Ishmael, as mentioned in the Quran (Surah 37: 100 to 108).

2. Ishmael was willing to be sacrificed, demonstrating his faith and submission to God’s will.

3. This event is seen as a test of Abraham’s faith and obedience to God.

4. The prophethood of Muhammad is related to this event, as he is a descendant of Ishmael.

5. The story of Abraham’s sacrifice is commemorated by Muslims during the Eid al-Adha, which is a celebration of Abraham’s faith and obedience to God.

Therefore, the prophethood of Muhammad is seen as a continuation of the legacy of Abraham and Ishmael, and the story of Abraham’s sacrifice is seen as a precursor to the prophethood of Muhammad.

What is Eid al-Adha?

Eid al-Adha, also known as the “Festival of Sacrifice,” is one of the most significant Islamic holidays. It commemorates the willingness of Prophet Ibrahim (Abraham) to sacrifice his son Isma’il (Ishmael) as an act of obedience to God.

According to Islamic tradition, just as Abraham was about to sacrifice his son, God provided a lamb to sacrifice instead.

The holiday is marked by various rituals and traditions, including:

1. Prayer: Special prayers are held in congregation, usually at a mosque or an open field.

2. Sacrifice: Families who can afford it will sacrifice an animal, typically a sheep, goat, cow, or camel. The meat is then distributed among family, friends, and those in need.

3. Charity: Emphasizing the importance of helping others, Muslims give to charity and ensure that everyone can partake in the celebration.

4. Gatherings and Feasts: Families and communities come together to share meals, celebrate, and enjoy each other’s company.

Eid al-Adha is celebrated on the 10th day of Dhu al-Hijjah, the last month of the Islamic lunar calendar, and it coincides with the pilgrimage to Mecca known as Hajj. Muslims who are performing Hajj experience this holiday in a particularly special way.

The Apostle Paul and the people of Kedar

Paul claimed that he was an apostle to the Gentiles. What was his connection to the people of Kedar, who were Gentiles and would enter God’s fold as predicted in Isaiah 42 verse 11 and Isaiah 60 verse 7? Kedar was the son of Ishmael, the ancestor of the Arab people.

This is a very interesting question. Paul was an apostle to the Gentiles, meaning that he preached the gospel of Jesus Christ to the non-Jewish nations. He traveled extensively throughout the Roman Empire, visiting places such as Cyprus, Asia Minor, Greece, Macedonia, and Rome. He also wrote many letters to the churches he founded or visited, which are part of the New Testament.

While Paul’s ministry was mainly directed towards the Gentiles in various regions, there is no specific mention or connection between Paul and the people of Kedar in the New Testament.

The people of Kedar were a nomadic tribe of Arabs, descended from Ishmael, the son of Abraham and Hagar. They are mentioned several times in the Old Testament as examples of the distant nations that would worship the true God. Isaiah 42 verse 11 and Isaiah 60 verse 7 are two of the prophecies that foretell the inclusion of the people of Kedar in God’s salvation plan.

The references to Kedar in Isaiah are prophecies that speak about the inclusion of Gentiles into God’s fold. These prophecies imply that people from various nations, including the descendants of Kedar, would come to worship and acknowledge God.

Although Paul’s mission was to bring the message of salvation to the Gentiles, his primary interactions were with the Greco-Roman world rather than specific Arab or Ishmaelite communities. However, there is no specific mention of Paul having a direct connection to the people of Kedar mentioned in those specific verses of Isaiah.

A Comparative Analysis of the Gospel of Paul and the Teachings of Jesus

Some believe that the gospel of Paul is at odds with the teaching of Jesus. How is this argument articulated?

This is a complex and controversial topic that has been debated by scholars and theologians for centuries. There is no definitive answer, but some of the main arguments are:

Some believe that Paul’s gospel of grace and justification by faith contradicts Jesus’ gospel of the kingdom of God and obedience to the law. They claim that Paul distorted or ignored the teachings of Jesus, and introduced new doctrines that were not in line with the original message of Jesus and his Jewish followers.

Some believe that Paul’s gospel of Christ’s death and resurrection as the core of salvation history differs from Jesus’ gospel of God’s reign as the fulfillment of Israel’s hopes. They argue that Paul focused more on the person and work of Jesus, while Jesus focused more on the will and action of God.

Some believe that Paul’s gospel of inclusion of the Gentiles and freedom from the law opposes Jesus’ gospel of Israel’s restoration and observance of the law. They assert that Paul compromised or abandoned the Jewish identity and heritage of Jesus and his followers, and created a new religion that was detached from its Jewish roots.

These are some of the main ways that some people argue that the gospel of Paul is at odds with the teaching of Jesus. However, there are also many others who defend the harmony and continuity between Paul and Jesus, and who seek to reconcile their apparent differences by considering their historical, cultural, and theological contexts. Ultimately, this is a matter of interpretation and faith, and one that requires careful study and respectful dialogue.

Why were the Ebionites, a Jewish-Christian sect, antagonistic toward Paul?

Why were Ebionites antagonistic toward Paul?

The Ebionites were a Jewish-Christian sect that emerged in the early Christian era. They rejected the divinity of Jesus and insisted on the strict observance of Jewish law, including circumcision and dietary practices.

There are several reasons why the Ebionites were antagonistic toward Paul, who was a prominent figure in spreading the message of Christ among the Gentiles.

1. Apostolic Authority: The Ebionites believed that only the original disciples and James, the brother of Jesus, had true apostolic authority. They viewed Paul as an interloper who had never met Jesus during his earthly ministry. They considered his apostleship to be illegitimate and believed that he had distorted the teachings of Jesus.

2. Jewish Law: The Ebionites were strict observers of Jewish law and viewed it as a mandatory requirement for salvation. They criticized Paul’s teachings, which emphasized faith in Christ over the works of the law. Paul argued that salvation came through faith in Jesus, rather than adherence to the Jewish law, which caused disagreement and conflict between him and the Ebionites.

3. Gentile Inclusion: Paul actively preached the message of Christ to Gentiles, allowing them to become followers of Jesus without undergoing circumcision or observing Jewish laws. This inclusive approach was contrary to the Ebionites’ strict adherence to Jewish customs and practices. They saw Paul as diluting the original Jewish character of Christianity by opening it up to non-Jews.

4. Pauline Theology: The Ebionites had a different understanding of Jesus’ nature and believed that he was a human prophet and not divine. Paul’s writings, particularly his emphasis on Jesus as the Son of God, contradicted their beliefs, leading them to reject his teachings and view him as a heretic.

In summary, the Ebionites opposed Paul due to his claim to apostolic authority, his emphasis on faith over Jewish law, his inclusion of Gentiles in the Christian community, and his theology that conflicted with their understanding of Jesus’ nature.

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What was the level of esteem that the Ebionites held for James, the brother of Jesus?

The Ebionites held James, the brother of Jesus, in extremely high esteem, considering him a central and authoritative figure in their movement. They regarded him as the true successor to Jesus and a model of righteousness, likely due to his leadership of the early Jerusalem Church and his strict adherence to Jewish law.

Early Christian sources, such as The Recognitions of Clement and The Ascents of James, which are associated with Ebionite traditions, depict James as the ultimate teacher of the faith, emphasizing his role as the head of the Jerusalem community and a guardian of the Torah-observant message of Jesus. Additionally, Church Fathers like Epiphanius of Salamis noted that the Ebionites revered James and saw him as a pillar of their beliefs, in contrast to figures like Paul, whom they rejected.