Azahari Hassim and his exploration of Abrahamic Theology

What is Abrahamic theology?

Abrahamic theology refers to the religious beliefs and teachings that are derived from the figure of Abraham in the three major monotheistic religions: Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. These religions all trace their origins back to Abraham, who is considered a central figure in their respective faiths.

Abrahamic theology emphasizes the belief in one God, ethical monotheism, and the importance of faith and obedience to God's will. It also includes teachings on morality, ethics, salvation, and eschatology (the study of end times).

1. Judaism: Judaism is the oldest of the three, tracing its origins to the covenant established between God and Abraham. The Torah, comprising the first five books of the Hebrew Bible, is the central text.

Jewish theology emphasizes the oneness of God (Yahweh) and the importance of following God's commandments as detailed in the Torah. The concept of the chosen people and the land of Israel are also significant.

2. Christianity: Christianity emerged from Judaism in the first century CE, with Jesus of Nazareth as its central figure. Christians believe Jesus is the Messiah (Christ) prophesied in the Hebrew Bible, and his life, death, and resurrection are foundational to Christian faith.

The New Testament, particularly the Gospels, documents Jesus' teachings and the early Christian community. The doctrine of the Trinity, which posits one God in three persons (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit), distinguishes Christian theology from its Abrahamic counterparts.

3. Islam: Islam, founded in the 7th century CE by the Prophet Muhammad, considers itself the final and complete revelation of the monotheistic faith. The Quran, believed to be the literal word of God as revealed to Muhammad, is the central text.

Islamic theology emphasizes the oneness of God (Allah) and the importance of submission to God's will. The Five Pillars of Islam outline essential practices for Muslims, including prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage.

Theological Divergences

Despite their shared monotheistic foundation, the Abrahamic religions diverge significantly in their theological perspectives and interpretations.

1. Nature of God and Revelation:

In Judaism, God is seen as a singular, indivisible entity who communicates through prophets and the Torah.

Christianity's doctrine of the Trinity introduces a complex understanding of God as three persons in one essence, which is not present in Judaism or Islam.

Islam emphasizes the absolute oneness of God (Tawhid) and rejects any division of God's nature. The Quran is viewed as the final and unaltered revelation, superseding previous scriptures.

2. Prophethood and Messianism:

Judaism awaits the coming of the Messiah, a future leader who will restore Israel and bring peace.

Christianity holds that Jesus is the Messiah and divine Son of God, whose life and resurrection offer salvation to humanity.

Islam recognizes many prophets, including Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, but considers Muhammad the final prophet, whose message completes previous revelations.

3. Scriptures and Authority:

The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh) is central to Judaism, with rabbinic literature like the Talmud providing further interpretation.

Christianity combines the Old Testament (shared with Judaism) and the New Testament, which contains the teachings of Jesus and his apostles.

The Quran is the ultimate authority in Islam, supplemented by Hadith literature, which records the sayings and actions of Muhammad.

Isaac and Ishmael in Islamic Tradition: A Narrative of Trial and Reward

From the Islamic perspective, the story of Prophet Abraham and his sons, Ishmael and Isaac, is not merely a tale of lineage but a profound spiritual narrative that speaks to themes of faith, sacrifice, and divine reward. Central to this story is the contrasting yet complementary roles that Ishmael and Isaac play within the broader tapestry of Abraham’s life and legacy.

According to Islamic tradition, the birth of Isaac is seen as the final chapter in a long journey of trials, a divine reward granted after Abraham’s unwavering faith was tested to its limits. Isaac, therefore, represents a “son of reward”—a miraculous gift born to Abraham and his wife Sarah in their old age, symbolizing the fulfillment of God’s promise and the blessings that come after steadfastness in faith.

Ishmael, on the other hand, is viewed as a “son of trial.” Islamic sources recount that Abraham, following divine instruction, left his firstborn son Ishmael and Ishmael’s mother, Hagar, in the barren desert of Mecca. This act was not one of abandonment, but one of supreme obedience to God’s will. As a baby, Ishmael was placed in an environment of utter desolation, where his mother ran between the hills of Safa and Marwa in desperate search of water—an act that is commemorated during the Hajj pilgrimage. The appearance of the Zamzam well at Ishmael’s feet is seen as a sign of divine mercy and providence.

Furthermore, Islamic tradition maintains that it was Ishmael, not Isaac, who was the intended son in the near-sacrifice event—an ultimate test of Abraham’s devotion. This belief is supported by Quranic verses that describe the son as a “forbearing” boy and speak of the trial before Isaac’s birth, which aligns with the timeline of Ishmael’s life.

In this view, Isaac’s birth is not isolated from Ishmael’s story but is intricately connected to it. It is understood as a divine reward to Abraham after he demonstrated his willingness to sacrifice his only and firstborn son at the time—Ishmael. The reward was not only in the sparing of Ishmael but also in the joyous arrival of Isaac, fulfilling God’s promise of righteous progeny.

Thus, from an Islamic viewpoint, the narratives of Ishmael and Isaac are two sides of the same coin—trial and reward, obedience and fulfillment. Isaac’s birth closes a chapter of hardship with divine joy, while Ishmael’s trials underscore the depth of Abraham’s faith and the mercy of God. Together, they form a unified story of a family chosen by God, through which great nations and prophetic legacies would arise.

Ishmael, the son dedicated to God, and Isaac, the son of blessing for Abraham and Sarah

It is thought that Abraham abandoned Hagar and the baby Ishmael close to the Kaaba (House of God) to devote them to God as if they were His. Consequently, Muslims celebrate Eid al-Adha and Sa’i, which honors Hagar’s search for water for her child. This happened well before Isaac’s birth. How is their argument explained?

The Islamic narrative of Abraham, Hagar, and Ishmael differs significantly from the Biblical account and forms an important part of Islamic tradition and ritual. Here’s an explanation of the argument:

Abraham’s Journey to Mecca

According to Islamic tradition, Abraham was commanded by God to take Hagar and their infant son Ishmael to Mecca. This journey was not seen as abandonment, but rather as fulfilling a divine command. Abraham left them near the location of what would later become the Kaaba, entrusting them to God’s care.

Hagar’s Faith and the Zamzam Well

After Abraham’s departure, Hagar demonstrated remarkable faith. When their water supply was exhausted, she ran between the hills of Al-Safa and Al-Marwah seven times, desperately searching for water for her thirsty child. This act of faith resulted in the miraculous appearance of the Zamzam well, a spring of water that gushed forth near Ishmael.

Significance in Islamic Ritual

This event is commemorated in the Islamic pilgrimage (Hajj) through the ritual of Sa’i, where pilgrims run or walk between the hills of Al-Safa and Al-Marwah seven times, reenacting Hagar’s search for water.

The Kaaba and Mecca

Islamic tradition holds that Abraham later returned to Mecca multiple times. During one of these visits, he and Ishmael constructed the Kaaba as the first house of worship dedicated to the one true God. This established Mecca as a sacred site in Islam.

Eid al-Adha

Eid al-Adha commemorates Abraham’s willingness to sacrifice his son (identified as Ishmael in Islamic tradition) at God’s command. This event is believed to have occurred near Mecca, further cementing the area’s religious significance.

Timing in Relation to Isaac

In the Islamic narrative, these events occurred before Isaac’s birth. Ishmael is considered the elder son and the one whom Abraham was commanded to sacrifice.

God’s Blessing of Isaac

Following the near sacrifice of Ishmael, God blessed Sarah and Abraham with a son named Isaac, fulfilling His promise to them and establishing Isaac as another patriarch in the Abrahamic faiths.

Ishmael was the fruit of Abraham, while Isaac was a gift of God to Abraham

From the Islamic perspective, Ishmael was the fruit of Abraham, while Isaac was a gift of God to Abraham due to his willingness to sacrifice his firstborn son, Ishmael. What is the explanation for this?

In Islamic tradition, both Ishmael and Isaac are revered as prophets and are the sons of the Prophet Abraham. Here’s a breakdown from the Islamic perspective:

Ishmael: He is the first son of Abraham and Hagar. When Hagar and her infant son Ishmael were in the desert, God provided them with the well of Zamzam. Ishmael and his father, Abraham, later constructed the Kaaba in Mecca. The majority of Islamic traditions indicate that it was Ishmael, not Isaac, whom Abraham was commanded to sacrifice. However, at the last moment, God provided a ram to sacrifice in place of Ishmael. This event is commemorated during Eid al-Adha.

Isaac: He is the second son of Abraham and his wife, Sarah. In Islamic narratives, after the trial of the sacrifice, as a reward for Abraham’s unwavering faith, God blessed him with a second son, Isaac, through Sarah. Isaac is also considered a prophet and is respected in Islamic tradition.

The Islamic account differs from the Jewish and Christian traditions, where Isaac is the one whom Abraham is commanded to sacrifice. In the Qur’an, the specific name of the son to be sacrificed is not mentioned, but many Islamic scholars and traditions identify him as Ishmael based on the sequence of events in the Quran, which suggests that the promise of Isaac’s birth came after the sacrifice narrative, implying Ishmael was the son involved (Surah 37, verses 100 to 112).

What does the Arabic word “نَافِلَةً” mean in Surah 21, verse 72, in the Quran? Could you elaborate more on why the Quran uses such a word to refer to Abraham concerning Isaac and Jacob?

The Arabic word “نَافِلَةً” in Surah 21, verse 72 of the Quran refers to “additional” or “extra” in English. In this verse, it is used to describe how Allah favored Abraham by giving him the additional gift of Isaac and Jacob, in addition to his son Ishmael.

This word is significant in this context because it highlights the special and additional blessings that Allah bestowed upon Prophet Abraham. It emphasizes the extraordinary nature of the gift of Isaac and Jacob, in addition to his first son Ishmael, as a form of divine favor and grace.

The use of the word “نَافِلَةً” also emphasizes the generosity and abundance of Allah’s blessings, highlighting the multiplicity of children and the continuity of prophethood within Prophet Abraham’s lineage. This choice of wording serves to underscore the extraordinary nature of Allah’s favors and blessings upon his chosen prophets and their descendants.

Overall, the use of the word “نَافِلَةً” in this verse serves to emphasize the exceptional nature of the gift of Isaac and Jacob to Prophet Abraham, in addition to his son Ishmael, highlighting the abundance and generosity of Allah’s blessings upon his chosen servants.

Ishmael: The Rightful Heir of the Abrahamic Covenant – Revisiting Biblical Circumcision and Lineage

The Abrahamic covenant stands as a foundational pillar in the sacred histories of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. Central to this covenant is the rite of circumcision, instituted by God as a binding sign between Himself and Abraham’s descendants. Traditionally, Jewish and Christian interpretations assert that Isaac, the son born to Abraham and Sarah, is the rightful heir through whom this covenant is fulfilled.

However, a careful reexamination of the biblical chronology challenges this assumption. This article argues that Ishmael, not Isaac, was the first and only son to receive the covenantal sign alongside Abraham himself—prior to Isaac’s birth—thereby establishing Ishmael as the sole and true heir of the original Abrahamic covenant. By exploring the timing, recipients, and implications of circumcision in Genesis 17 and 21, this piece invites readers to reconsider long-held views and appreciate the overlooked centrality of Ishmael in the divine covenant.

1. The Biblical Basis for Circumcision as a Covenant

The Bible establishes circumcision as the sign of the covenant between God and Abraham:

Genesis 17:9–11

“Then God said to Abraham, ‘As for you, you must keep my covenant, you and your descendants after you for the generations to come. This is my covenant with you and your descendants after you, the covenant you are to keep: Every male among you shall be circumcised… it will be the sign of the covenant between me and you.’”
Here, circumcision is the definitive sign of the Abrahamic covenant.

2. The Timing of Circumcision Before Isaac’s Birth

The Bible affirms that circumcision was performed before Isaac was born:

Genesis 17:23–26

“On that very day Abraham took his son Ishmael and all those born in his household or bought with his money, every male in his household, and circumcised them, as God told him… Abraham was ninety-nine years old when he was circumcised, and his son Ishmael was thirteen.”
At this critical juncture, only Abraham and Ishmael were Abraham’s natural descendants to receive the sign of the covenant. Isaac had not yet been born.

3. Ishmael as the Sole and True Heir of the Abrahamic Covenant

This sequence of events reveals that:
Circumcision is the outward and binding sign of the Abrahamic covenant.
Ishmael was the only son of Abraham present to receive this sign alongside him.
All others circumcised at that time were household members and servants—not Abraham’s direct offspring.
Therefore, Ishmael alone stands as the true and sole heir of the Abrahamic covenant, sharing this foundational covenantal sign with Abraham himself.

4. Isaac as Merely a Participant Like Other Household Members

When Isaac was born, he too was circumcised on the eighth day (Genesis 21:4). However, this circumcision occurred after the covenant was already established through Abraham and Ishmael. Like the other members of Abraham’s household, Isaac simply entered into an existing covenantal practice rather than establishing or uniquely embodying it.

In this understanding:
Isaac’s circumcision parallels that of Abraham’s other household members.
He was brought into the covenantal sign but did not share in the original covenantal enactment alongside Abraham.
Thus, Isaac is seen merely as a participant in the Abrahamic covenant, not as its unique heir.

5. Distinction from the Sinai Covenant

The Sinai covenant was revealed exclusively to the descendants of Isaac through Jacob (Israel), establishing a separate covenantal framework for the Israelites.

In contrast, the original Abrahamic covenant—established through circumcision before Isaac’s birth—finds its complete and exclusive fulfillment in Ishmael, who was the first to embody and share this sign with Abraham.

6. Challenging Traditional Jewish and Christian Views

Traditionally, Jewish and Christian interpretations place Isaac as the sole heir of the Abrahamic covenant. However, this argument radically reorients that view:
Ishmael alone shares the covenantal enactment with Abraham.
Isaac, like the other household members, enters a covenantal practice already established.
Therefore, Ishmael alone emerges as the true and rightful heir of the Abrahamic covenant.

Summary of the Articulation

Circumcision, the outward sign of the Abrahamic covenant, was first performed on Abraham and Ishmael before Isaac was born. This historical reality establishes that while Isaac and others in Abraham’s household were participants in the sign of the covenant, only Ishmael shared in the covenant’s original establishment and thus stands as its true and exclusive heir. In this perspective, Ishmael’s role transcends mere participation—he alone embodies the Abrahamic covenant in its full and foundational form.

Here is how the Jewish scribe manipulated Ishmael’s story:

1. The age of Ishmael at the time of his departure from Abraham’s house.

2. Abraham’s son, who was offered as a sacrifice.

Some Islamic scholars suspect that the scribes tampered with the story of Hagar and Ishmael in the Torah. It is argued that Genesis 21, verses 9 to 10, may have been added later because Ishmael and Hagar had already left Abraham’s house long before Isaac was born, with Ishmael being an infant according to Islamic tradition.

Similarly, some question whether Genesis 22, verse 2, could refer to Ishmael, since Isaac had never been Abraham’s only son, whereas Ishmael had been for fourteen years before Isaac was born. How is this Islamic viewpoint presented?

The Islamic perspective on the stories of Hagar, Ishmael, and Isaac, as presented in the Torah, differs significantly from the Jewish and Christian narratives. These differences have led some Islamic scholars to question the authenticity of certain Biblical passages, suggesting possible later additions or alterations.

In the Islamic tradition, Hagar and Ishmael’s story is seen through a different lens compared to the Biblical account. According to Islamic belief, Ishmael was an infant when he and his mother Hagar were left in the desert, which contrasts with the Biblical narrative where Ishmael is depicted as a young boy during this event. Some Islamic scholars argue that certain verses in Genesis, such as Genesis 21:9-10, might have been added later, as they imply that Ishmael was older and capable of mocking Isaac, which would not align with the Islamic timeline where Ishmael had already left before Isaac’s birth.

The question of who was the intended son of sacrifice is another point of divergence. In the Quran, it is generally believed that Ishmael was the son whom Abraham was commanded to sacrifice, whereas the Bible identifies Isaac as the intended sacrifice. This discrepancy has led some Islamic scholars to suggest that Genesis 22, verse 2, which refers to Isaac as Abraham’s “only son,” might be inaccurate, as Ishmael was Abraham’s firstborn and was his only son for fourteen years before Isaac’s birth. The argument is that the description of Isaac as the “only son” could have been a later addition to emphasize Isaac’s significance in the Jewish tradition.

Islamic narratives emphasize the significance of Ishmael and his descendants, linking them to the lineage of the Prophet Muhammad. The Islamic tradition holds that Abraham and Ishmael together built the Kaaba in Mecca, a central element in Islamic faith, which is not mentioned in the Bible. The Quran and Islamic teachings often highlight the spiritual and prophetic roles of both Ishmael and Isaac, but with a focus on Ishmael’s role in the lineage leading to Islam.

Conclusion

The Islamic viewpoint on the story of Hagar and Ishmael in the Torah is characterized by skepticism towards the authenticity of certain verses. Islamic scholars argue that the timeline and events described in the Torah may have been altered, and that Ishmael may have been the son referred to in Genesis 22:2 instead of Isaac.

Islam as the Restoration of Abraham’s Original Teachings

Islam is considered a restored religion of Abraham, based on the perspective that both Judaism and Christianity have deviated from his original teachings.
Adherents of Islam assert that Judaism has altered the command regarding the sacrifice of Abraham’s son, holding that the son in question was Ishmael rather than Isaac.

Furthermore, they contend that Christianity has diverged from the tenet of monotheism by introducing the concept of the Trinity and modifying the practice of circumcision.
Therefore, from the Islamic viewpoint, Islam embodies the authentic restoration of the teachings of Abraham as presented in the Quran.